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In SeptemberEthereum made the transition from a power-hungry, proof-of-work system to an environmentally friendly proof-of-stake system.
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The trade-off here is that centralized providers consolidate large pools of ETH to run large numbers of validators. This can be dangerous for the network and its users as it creates a large centralized target and point of failure, making the network more vulnerable to attack or bugs. If you don't feel comfortable holding your own keys, that's okay. These options are here for you. In the meantime, consider checking out our wallets page , where you can get started learning how to take true ownership over your funds.
When you're ready, come back and level up your staking game by trying one of the self-custody pooled staking services offered. As you may have noticed, there are many ways to participate in Ethereum staking. This validator is responsible for creating a new block and sending it out to other nodes on the network. Also in every slot, a committee of validators is randomly chosen, whose votes are used to determine the validity of the block being proposed.
Finality A transaction has "finality" in distributed networks when it's part of a block that can't change without a significant amount of ETH getting burned. On proof-of-stake Ethereum, this is managed using "checkpoint" blocks. The first block in each epoch is a checkpoint.
Validators vote for pairs of checkpoints that it considers to be valid. If a pair of checkpoints attracts votes representing at least two-thirds of the total staked ETH, the checkpoints are upgraded. The more recent of the two target becomes "justified". The earlier of the two is already justified because it was the "target" in the previous epoch.
Now it is upgraded to "finalized". To revert a finalized block, an attacker would commit to losing at least one-third of the total supply of staked ETH. The exact reason for this is explained in this Ethereum Foundation blog post.
Since finality requires a two-thirds majority, an attacker could prevent the network from reaching finality by voting with one-third of the total stake. There is a mechanism to defend against this: the inactivity leak. This activates whenever the chain fails to finalize for more than four epochs. The inactivity leak bleeds away the staked ETH from validators voting against the majority, allowing the majority to regain a two-thirds majority and finalize the chain. Crypto-economic security Running a validator is a commitment.
The validator is expected to maintain sufficient hardware and connectivity to participate in block validation and proposal. In return, the validator is paid in ETH their staked balance increases. On the other hand, participating as a validator also opens new avenues for users to attack the network for personal gain or sabotage.
To prevent this, validators miss out on ETH rewards if they fail to participate when called upon, and their existing stake can be destroyed if they behave dishonestly. There are two primary behaviors that can be considered dishonest: proposing multiple blocks in a single slot equivocating and submitting contradictory attestations. The amount of ETH slashed depends on how many validators are also being slashed at around the same time. It is imposed halfway through a forced exit period that begins with an immediate penalty up to 0.
They receive minor attestation penalties every day because they are present on the network but not submitting votes. This all means a coordinated attack would be very costly for the attacker. Fork choice When the network performs optimally and honestly, there is only ever one new block at the head of the chain, and all validators attest to it.
However, it is possible for validators to have different views of the head of the chain due to network latency or because a block proposer has equivocated. Therefore, consensus clients require an algorithm to decide which one to favor. They could then use their own attestations to ensure their preferred fork was the one with the most accumulated attestations.
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Tương lai của Ethereum như thế nào khi chuyển qua Proof of stakeELEVENFOLD BETTING TIPS
Financial derivatives aside, the sheer volume of development in both onchain and offchain protocols over the past 4 years are well and truly creating the foundation for a new global economy. There is however a fundamental change to the Ethereum protocol on the horizon that — in the build up to its launch — has the potential to usher in the next ravenous investment into the space.
Rather than having electricity-intensive miners process transactions by solving a difficult mathematical problem, transactions are instead processed through the staking of Ether in specialized smart contracts. There is plenty of information available online to those interested in diving deep into PoW and PoS consensus, however for the purposes of this article the focus will be on the higher level implications for the price of Ethereum.
Firstly, a very quick introduction to Proof of Stake versus Proof of Work: Proof of Work requires significantly more computation electricity which typically increases with blockchain usage. On the other hand, Proof of Stake requires a comparatively negligible amount of electricity regardless of usage. Proof of Stake is a dramatically more green mechanism for securing a blockchain. Proof of Work is dominated by expensive and specialized hardware which favors a very specific group of people: those with access to chip manufacturers, low electricity costs and government subsidies.
Theoretically, Proof of Stake promotes far greater decentralization of transaction processing as it remains accessible to anyone, anywhere in the world regardless of the factors above. The only barrier is a significant minimum stake amount although this may reduce over time. As an aside, the specialized hardware ASIC chips that have somewhat centralized Bitcoin mining have recently been developed to work on Ethereum.
The validator then sends a vote called an attestation in favor of that block across the network. Whereas under proof-of-work, the timing of blocks is determined by the mining difficulty, in proof-of-stake, the tempo is fixed. Time in proof-of-stake Ethereum is divided into slots 12 seconds and epochs 32 slots. One validator is randomly selected to be a block proposer in every slot. This validator is responsible for creating a new block and sending it out to other nodes on the network.
Also in every slot, a committee of validators is randomly chosen, whose votes are used to determine the validity of the block being proposed. Finality A transaction has "finality" in distributed networks when it's part of a block that can't change without a significant amount of ETH getting burned. On proof-of-stake Ethereum, this is managed using "checkpoint" blocks.
The first block in each epoch is a checkpoint. Validators vote for pairs of checkpoints that it considers to be valid. If a pair of checkpoints attracts votes representing at least two-thirds of the total staked ETH, the checkpoints are upgraded. The more recent of the two target becomes "justified".
The earlier of the two is already justified because it was the "target" in the previous epoch. Now it is upgraded to "finalized". To revert a finalized block, an attacker would commit to losing at least one-third of the total supply of staked ETH. The exact reason for this is explained in this Ethereum Foundation blog post. Since finality requires a two-thirds majority, an attacker could prevent the network from reaching finality by voting with one-third of the total stake.
There is a mechanism to defend against this: the inactivity leak. This activates whenever the chain fails to finalize for more than four epochs. The inactivity leak bleeds away the staked ETH from validators voting against the majority, allowing the majority to regain a two-thirds majority and finalize the chain.
Crypto-economic security Running a validator is a commitment. The validator is expected to maintain sufficient hardware and connectivity to participate in block validation and proposal. In return, the validator is paid in ETH their staked balance increases. On the other hand, participating as a validator also opens new avenues for users to attack the network for personal gain or sabotage. To prevent this, validators miss out on ETH rewards if they fail to participate when called upon, and their existing stake can be destroyed if they behave dishonestly.
There are two primary behaviors that can be considered dishonest: proposing multiple blocks in a single slot equivocating and submitting contradictory attestations. The amount of ETH slashed depends on how many validators are also being slashed at around the same time.
It is imposed halfway through a forced exit period that begins with an immediate penalty up to 0. They receive minor attestation penalties every day because they are present on the network but not submitting votes. This all means a coordinated attack would be very costly for the attacker.
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